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Aaron J. Powner, M.Ed.
High School Science Teacher

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e·pis·te·mol·ogy       /ɪˌpɪstəˈmɒlədʒi/

etymology - circa 1856, "theory of knowledge," coined by Scottish philosopher James F. Ferrier (1808-1864) from Greek episteme "knowledge" + -ology "branch of knowledge, science." The branch of philosophy concerned with the origin, acquisition, scope, and validity of knowledge. -- Online Etymology Dictionary © Douglas Harper and Dictionary.com

 

Knowledge Theory

Prezi

1. Formal Terminology: Epistemology

• etymology: from Greek episteme "knowledge" and -ology "the study of" -- we say "understand," but Iconic Greek epistasthai literally means "overstand"
• The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge.
• Epistemology has been evolving for thousands of years.

2. Main Questions of Epistemology

• What is knowledge?
• How is knowledge gained?
• To what extent can truth be known?

3. Construction of Knowledge -

• Subject - the perceiver of objects. Involves intelligence. A subject must possess senses and a means to process the same (the human brain is a powerful difference engine); one subject can perceive itself or other subjects as individual objects
• Object - that which is perceived. Involves interpretation of reality. An object possesses properties and relations to other objects that can be perceived by intelligent subjects
• Phenomenon (pl. Phenomena) - an event, a process or pattern of change in the properties of objects or relationships between multiple objects
• Stimulus (pl. Stimuli) - sensory input caused by any object or phenomenon. The human brain receives billions of bits of information per second from the senses, but it filters out most of this, focusing on processing only relevant information
• Perception - when the mind becomes aware of and pays attention to (focuses) a set of sensory information and begins to process it
• Intelligence - the ability to perceive objects, tell the difference between them, and react to them
• Memory - retained information about perceptions, ideas, symbols, and processes. The human brain has short-term and long-term memory, with a memory capacity of about 2,500 terabytes or 2.5 petabytes (ref).
• Concept / Idea - a mental image of an object or phenomenon. When a subject begins to process related perceptions, the imagination creates a mental model of reality and begins to analyze, interpret, remember, and react to objects or events in its surroundings. Etymology of these synonyms: the word concept is from the Latin concipere which means "to take in and hold" and the word idea is from the Greek idein which means "to see or know"
• Symbol - a practical representation of an object or phenomenon for communication [words (spoken, written, or signed), drawings, etc.]
• Concrete Ideas - a concept that relates only to direct physical perceptions, usually tied to external objects
• Abstract Ideas - more complex concepts which are made of frameworks of concrete (or less abstract) ideas -- often in the absence of an external object. Examples: love, faith, hate, etc. A concept/idea can itself be an object which can be perceived.
• Schema - a framework of related concrete and abstract ideas which represents a "big picture" understanding of a domain (theme) of knowledge
• Comprehensive World-View - the entire framework of all schemata that forms the basis of the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society. This framework encompasses the entirety of the individual or society's knowledge and point-of-view, including: (1) natural philosophy; (2) fundamental, existential, and normative postulates; (3) themes of values, emotions, and ethics; and (4) perception of reality.
• Cognition - all mental processes involved in thinking and learning. The human brain is capable of processing information at about 38 thousand trillion operations per second (ref); most of this is subconscious; the degree of conscious brain activity depends on the nature of the task, usually dealing with about seven bits of information at a time and processing a few dozen ideas per second (ref). Categories of cognitive processes include:
  • Receiving Ideas - learning and communicating
    • Perception - of information about objects via the senses
    • Forming Ideas - imagining objects
    • Remembering Ideas - short-term and long-term memory
    • Symbolizing Ideas - words (spoken, written, or signed), drawings, etc. for communication purposes
  • Responding to Ideas - deductive reasoning
    • Analysis of Ideas - organizing, characterizing, and inferring meaning of ideas
    • Evaluation of Ideas - testing, gathering evidence (justification), determining degree of certainty, and judging the truth value of ideas
    • Application of Ideas - planning and problem solving with existing ideas (deduction)
    • Adapting to New Ideas - adjusting prior knowledge or behavior to new information
    • Levels of Deductive Response to Ideas - guided response, mechanical response, independent response, transferred response
  • Creating New Ideas - inductive reasoning
    • Abstracting more complex ideas from simpler ones
    • Creating new applications of ideas (techniques)

4. Sources of Knowledge or Truth

• Authority - statement of ideas by recognized experts or by those having direct experience
  
  
• Physical Senses - direct personal experience. The traditional five senses include: vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch. In biology, the number and extent of senses is debated - see appendix for more details.
  
  
• Reason - logical cognitive processes used to manipulate ideas

Deductive Reasoning - using a generally accepted ideas to form specific observations ("top down thinking")

Inductive Reasoning - using specific observations to form a generally accepted idea ("bottom up thinking")

Abductive Reasoning - testing a "best guess" to form more substantial hypotheses ("trial and error")

• Intuition - gaining knowledge without any apparent use of the physical senses

Rational Intuition - subconscious mental processes involving memories and unattended sensory information to solve problems (often while daydreaming, sleeping, or busy with an unrelated task)

Irrational Intuition - receiving information that cannot have come from rational intuition. This is viewed with skepticism yet is studied profusely due to its profound impact on individuals and communities (e.g., spiritual experiences or ESP)

 

 

 

Electromagnetic Fields and Waves

Vision (sight) - the eyes react to a range of visible wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation (ROYGBV; IR in reptiles and UV in insects and birds)

Electroreception - sensing changes in electrical fields by hair (e.g., sharks, eels, fish, dolphin, platypus)

Magnetoreception - sensing changes in magnetic fields by hair (e.g., migratory birds, bees, cattle, whales, and bacteria)

Chemoreception

Olfaction (smell) - external chemicals (odors) are perceived in the wet tissues of the nostrils (vomeronasal organ in salamanders, reptiles, and some mammals; antennae of insects)

Gustation (taste) - external chemicals (flavors) are perceived in the wet tissues of the tongue (apendages of insects; skin of some fish)

Internal Chemoreseption - oxygen and carbon dioxide receptors in brain (sense of suffocation), salt and sugar receptors in blood (thirst response), hormone receptors in brain

Mechanoreception

Audition (hearing) - air pressure waves (sound) is mechanically transmitted to inner ear where they vibrate sensory hairs

External Tactition (touch) - pressure, stretch, and strain of external tissue (skin)

Inernal Tactition (touch) - pressure, stretch, and strain of internal tissues

Lungs - autonomic respiratory rate and conscious breath control

Blood Vessels - blood pressure, local temperature changes (blush response), headaches

Sinuses (nose) - sneeze reflex to foreign debris

Pharynx (throat) and Trachea (wind pipe) - gag and cough reflexes to foreign debris

Esophagus - swallowing reflex to food

Stomach - full sensation and hunger

Intestines - sensations of gas and cramps

Bladder and Rectum - sensations of urge to void

Other Physical Senses

Equilibrioception (balance and acceleration) - body position and gravity sensed in the semi-circular canals of the inner ear (statocyst in plants and many invertebrates)

Thermoception (temperature) - sense of hot/cold and heat flux (rate of change)

Nociception (pain) - signals nerve-damage or damage to tissue; three types include cutaneous (skin), somatic (joints and bones), and visceral (body organs)

Proprioception (space) - kinesthetic sense of position of limbs and appendages

Chronoception (time) - sensing external passage of time and internal biological rhythms (e.g., sleep patterns, monthly menstrual cycles; migration, tidal behaviors, mating, and hybernation cycles in other species)

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Citations and More Information:

[Secondary Source - HS level ] Senses Special: Doors of Perception (New Scientist - 2005)

[Secondary Source - college level]  The Twenty+ Senses (University of Utah - Genetic Science Learning Center - 2014)

[Primary Source - professional level] Physiology of Senses (NIH): Physiology, Sensory System (Gadhvi, Moore, Waseem - 2023)

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